Flow Injection Analysis (FIA) And Cyanide Instruments

Flow Injection Analysis (FIA) is a non-equilibrium technique so there is no mathematical theory than can adequately explain it. In its normal use, FIA is an interaction between chemical reactions and physical dispersion. The FIA manifold is a three dimensional (diameter and length) chemical reactor with an infinite number of small volumes that each have slightly different concentrations of sample and reagent. These concentrations change with time as they travel through the tubing and the rate of change is dependent upon:

Flow rate

Sample size

Tubing Length

Tubing Diameter

Temperature

Viscosity

The closest mathematical theory to explain FIA is the random walk model first proposed by Einstein to explain Brownian motion. The random walk is dependent upon laminar flow and molecular diffusion. A visualization of the random walk is a very drunk person trying to walk a straight line. Each time he staggers off the line there is a chemical reaction. Another example would be to watch what happens when cold milk is poured into hot coffee. The little swirlies that happen are a result of diffusion as the milk slowly mixes with the coffee. The cold milk and coffee are made to react faster by swirling the cup. This is the same as adding loops to a FIA manifold.

The WAD cyanide system for ASTM D6888-04 or OIA 1677 is a FIA system. The sample containing cyanide is injected into a flowing stream of dilute acid solution. The cyanide combines with acid by molecular diffusion and adding a mixing coil speeds up the process. The hydrogen cyanide formed is passed under a hydrophobic membrane and drawn into a receiving stream of sodium hydroxide.

The OI Analytical total Cyanide system is a segmented flow analysis system. The sample containing cyanide is injected into a flowing stream of acid solution that is segmented with air. The air segments eliminate the laminar flow profile and cause reactions to occur in each little packet of sample + reagent. The end over end mixing as these packets travel down the tubing allows equilibrium to occur so that all sample and reagent react. (the biggest limitation to this is not having segments of equal size). The sample + reagent is irradiated by UV light at 312nm. This is sufficient to separate strong metal cyanide bonds recombining cyanide with H+ to form HCN and complexing the metals to form soluble sulfate salts. A reducing agent in the acid counter reacts peroxide radical formation minimizing oxidation of iron or decomposition of thiocyanate. After emerging from the UV reactor, a sulfide complexing reagent combines with the sample stream and the sample passes under a hydrophobic membrane and is drawn into a receiving stream of sodium hydroxide.

This non-distillation cyanide method was created to eliminate certain interferences that occur during a cyanide distillation that cause negative bias, positive bias, or both. Since the matrices of samples are rarely known, it is impossible to determine if bias will occur from the distillation step. These interferences can be so extreme as to cause cyanide to be not detected when it is really there, or to be detected when it is not. Some examples of these interferences are distillation of thiocyanate in the presence of nitrate, which causes cyanide detections when it is not there, or distillation of cyanide in the presence of thiocyanate alone that causes negative bias. The problem with the examples is significant because thiocyanate and nitrate both are common in environmental samples. Other interferences include oxidizers, sulfite, thiosulfate, reduced sulfur oxides, elemental sulfur, metallic sulfide complexes, and others. The non-distillation method has been experimentally proven have little affect from most of these interferents with the exception of a small (<1%) degradation of thiocyanate to cyanide as it passes through the UV reactor. This degradation of thiocyanate limits the time the sample should stay in the UV if thiocyanate is present. In other words, the method should be optimized to maximize cyanide complex recovery and minimize recovery of cyanide from thiocyanate.

I'm sure there are interferents as no method is perfect. However, these methods allow determination of cyanide without the burden of time consuming distillations and as an added bonus detect it in matrices that distillation does not do well on.

William Lipps
http://www.oico.com
(979) 690-1375 ext. 230
wlipps@oico.com

One Extraction, One Dilution, One Injection, Automation solutions.Segmented Flow, Flow Injection, Discrete Analyzers, TOC Analyzers, Sample Introduction, Gas Chromatography, Gel Permeation, Purge & Trap

Expert Methods Consulting
http://www.williamlipps.com

Classical Wet Chemistry, HPLC, IC, GC, GC/MS, SFA, FIA, Discrete, TOC, TOX, UV-VIS, IR, Osmometry, Petroleum, Proximate Analysis, Extractions, Digestions

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Ferret Adrenal Disease - What a Ferret Owner Should Know About a Bald Ferret

I spent some time volunteering at a ferret shelter. I've owned ferrets for a number of years, and I had some time on my hands since I had just moved to the area. I volunteered to clean cages- as you can imagine with over 100 of the little guys it was quite a job, and had to be done three times a week. Anyway, during the course of changing the cages I got to handle quite a lot of the hobs and jills (male and female ferrets respectively), and it was certainly the high point of the experience. There was one ferret in particular who took a liking to me- her name was Jenny. Jenny was a special little girl in a number of ways, not the least of which was that she was a solitary ferret. Most ferrets prefer the company of other ferrets- a rare few prefer to be alone, or to be with humans. Four-year-old Jenny had been at the shelter for about six months since her previous owner had surrendered her because he found out she was sick- Jenny had Adrenal Disease.

Unfortunately this is far too common, many people adopt a ferret without knowing that many of our furry friends will at some point in their lives develop some serious medical conditions. One of these conditions, Adrenal Disease, is estimated to affect over 50% (some say up to 70%) of Americans Ferrets, with the majority of them being female (70% according to Dr. Williams, DVM). Adrenal disease is caused when lesions or tumors form on one or both of the adrenal glands. Typically the disease manifests itself between three and four years of age, but can happen at any time after the first year of life. The symptoms usually begin with hair loss (alopecia) on the tail, and then it works its way forward until there is just a little hair left on the neck, head, and feet. In females, the vulva will usually swell. Sometimes, you will see increased scratching, and a loss of energy. Some ferrets will drink and urinate much more than usual, develop a pot belly, anemia, or show marked weight loss. If you see these symptoms, it's time for a visit to your vet.

The primary treatment for adrenal disease is removal of the afflicted adrenal gland. For some unknown reason the left gland accounts for the majority (over 60%) of problems. This is good news as the right adrenal is closer to several major blood vessels and is a more involved surgery. When both glands are affected, the veterinarian will usually leave a small portion of the right gland in place to continue to produce hormones and other necessary secretions. If your ferret is very old or sick, the veterinarian may prescribe medication to control (but not cure) Adrenal Disease. There's an oral medication (Lysodren) which is given every three days for life, or monthly shots of Lupron.

Ferrets who undergo surgery may make a full recovery and live their normal lifespan (six to ten years). Ferrets without surgery or treatment may regrow their hair, but they will not get better. Untreated Adrenal Disease will continue to deteriorate your ferret's quality of life, and they will become listless and loose muscle tone until they eventually die sooner than their natural lifespan- typically within two years. Part of being a responsible ferret owner is to make sure you get your ferret the medical care it needs.

I ended up adopting Jenny and getting her the needed surgery. Depending upon your vet this typically costs between $300 and $500- it's a good idea to plan for this expense early with a ferret savings account. Jenny recovered from the surgery beautifully, and was a wonderful pet until she passed on three years later, she more than repaid me in love and laughter.

Jillian Williams has a house full of ferrets and hangs out at Laughing Ferret. Stop by and check out the ferret video, also be sure to visit the ferret store as they're eating her out of house and home.

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Allied Health - The World of Medical Professionals

When you think of the medical profession, naturally the first people that leap to mind are doctors and nurses. But the medical field is filled with careers that have little or nothing to do with being a doctor or a nurse. These careers fall into the Allied Health categoryand together with other members of the healthcare system they make the system thrive.

If you are interested in working in the field of Allied Health, there is a career for you. This field is varied and specialized; there is something for just about everyone. Here are just a few of the possible careers available:

Anesthesiologist Assistants function as specialty physician assistants under the direction of a licensed and qualified anesthesiologist.

Athletic Trainers work with the consultation and direction of attending and/or consulting physicians and are an integral part of the health care system associated with physical activity and sports.

Audiologists are professionals who work with people that exhibit hearing, balance, and related ear problems. They examine individuals of all ages and identify those with the symptoms of hearing loss and other auditory, balance, and related neural problems.

Cardiovascular Technicians perform diagnostic examinations and therapeutic interventions of the heart and/or blood vessels at the request or direction of a physician.

Clinical Laboratory Assistants are trained multi-skilled health care providers with a laboratory focus. Laboratory tests play an important role in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases.

Cytotechnicians are specially trained technicians who work with pathologists to evaluate cellular material from virtually all body sites primarily utilizing the microscope.

Diagnostic Medical Sonographers (Ultrasound Technicians) provide patient services using medical ultrasound (high-frequency sound waves that produce images of internal structures) equipment.

Dietitians are nutritionists who integrate and apply the principles derived from the sciences of food, nutrition, biochemistry, physiology, food management, and behavior to achieve and maintain the health status of the public they serve.

Electroneurodiagnostic Technicians use specialized equipment to obtain interpretable recordings of patients nervous system function.

Emergency Medical Technicians (EMTs) are trained to provide emergency care to people who have suffered from an illness or an injury outside of the hospital setting.

Exercise Physiologists manage programs to assess, design, and implement individual and group exercise and fitness programs for apparently healthy individuals and individuals with controlled disease.

Genetic Counselors are health care professionals trained to provide genetic counseling services to individuals and families seeking information about the occurrence, or risk of occurrence, of a genetic condition or birth defect.

Health Information Technicians conduct health data collection, monitoring, maintenance, and reporting activities in accordance with legal and regulatory standards, and professional best practice guidelines.

Health Information Managers apply their training and expertise in both science and management to develop, implement, and/or provide oversight to health care data collection and reporting.

Medical Assistants function as members of medical offices and perform administrative and clinical procedures.

Medical Librarians are information professionals who specialize in health resources and provide medical information for physicians, allied health professionals, patients, consumers, students, and corporations.

Nuclear Medicine Technicians perform a number of tasks in the areas of patient care, technical skills, and administration. Nuclear medicine is the medical specialty that utilizes radioactive and stable nuclides to make diagnostic evaluations and to provide therapy with unsealed radioactive sources.

Occupational Therapists address the physical, cognitive, psychosocial, sensory, and other aspects of daily functioning to help patients more easily engage in everyday life activities that affect health, well being, and quality of life.

Ophthalmic Dispensing Opticians adapt and fit corrective eyewear, including eyeglasses and contact lenses, as prescribed by an ophthalmologist or optometrist.

Ophthalmic Assistants (as well as ophthalmic technicians and ophthalmic medical technologists) perform ophthalmic procedures under the direction or supervision of a licensed ophthalmologist.

Perfusionists are trained and educated specifically as a member of an open-heart surgical team responsible for the selection, setup, and operation of a mechanical device commonly referred to as the heart-lung machine.

Pharmacy Technicians assist licensed pharmacists in their duties.

Physical Therapists provide services to many different kinds of patients/clients, from those recovering from accidents or illness and people with disabilities to world-class athletes. They help improve patients strength and mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or limit permanent physical disabilities.

Physicians Assistants (PA) make clinical decisions and provide a broad range of diagnostic, therapeutic, preventive, and health maintenance services. The clinical role of PAs includes primary and specialty care in medical and surgical practice settings. PA practice is centered on patient care and may include educational, research, and administrative activities.

Polysomnographic Technicians perform sleep tests and work with physicians to provide information needed for the diagnosis of sleep disorders.

Radiation Therapists deliver prescribed doses of radiation to patients for therapeutic purposes. In fulfilling this primary responsibility, radiation therapists provide appropriate patient care.

Recreational Therapists use various interventions to treat physical, cognitive, emotional, and social conditions associated with illness, injury, or chronic disabilities.

Rehabilitation Counselors provide general and specialized counseling to people with disabilities in public human service programs and private practice settings.

Respiratory Therapists work in a wide variety of settings to evaluate, treat, and manage patients of all ages with respiratory illnesses and other cardiopulmonary disorders.

Speech-Language Pathologists work with people who cannot make speech sounds or cannot make them clearly, and those with speech rhythm and fluency problems, such as stuttering.

Surgical Assistants provide aid in all aspects of surgical procedures and help the surgeon carry out a safe operation. They also perform preoperative and postoperative duties to better facilitate proper patient care.

Surgical Technologists prepare the operating room by selecting and opening sterile supplies.

http://www.healthdegrees.com/allied-health-the-world-of-medical-professionals

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Your Pet's Need for Calcium

If you are one of the growing number of pet owners who are feeding their pets a raw meat or homemade diet, it is vitally important that your pet gets the proper amount of calcium.

Calcium is a very important mineral for your pets overall strength and good health. Of all the minerals, calcium is required in the greatest amount. It is essential in the body for many functions including bone formation, blood coagulation, muscle contraction and nerve impulse transmission.

If you are feeding a quality dog food then calcium is probably not a concern. Most good, natural foods contain more than enough calcium even for large breeds. Which animals need calcium supplementation? Animals on a muscle and organ meat based diet; animals on a home cooking diet, especially when the animal is a finicky eater that refuses to eat the entire diet; animals on food trials for allergies; animals on limited antigen or hypoallergenic home cooked diet; birds; reptiles; lactating mammals.

So, after consulting your veterinarian, youve determined that your pet needs calcium supplementation. Dr. Pitcairn, in his Complete Guide to Natural Health for Dogs & Cats has several suggestions for adding calcium to your pets diet. He recommends using powdered bone meal specially formulated for supplementation of animals. You can use that sold in natural food stores for human use, but it will be less convenient and more expensive. NEVER use bone meal sold in garden centers. It is toxic for animals (and humans).

A very pure form of calcium is that derived from seaweed off the coast of Ireland. It has the advantage of not coming from an animal source and provides many excellent trace minerals.

Calcium tablets or powder is another source of supplementation. It comes in different forms such as calcium carbonate, chelated calcium, calcium gluconate or calcium lactate. Avoid products that also contain phosphorus or magnesium. If you buy tablets, use a mortar and pestle or pill crusher to grind them to a powder before mixing with food.

Eggshell powder is an all natural and very inexpensive way to provide calcium in your pets diet. You can make it yourself from eggshells which are very high in calcium carbonate. Wash the eggshells right after cracking and allow to dry. After accumulating a dozen or so, bake at 300 degrees for about 10 minutes. This removes a mineral-oil coating sometimes added to keep eggs from drying out. The shells are now dry and brittle enough to grind into a fine powder with a nut and seed grinder, blender or motar and pestle. Eliminate any sharp pieces.

Calcium is one of the most important nutrients our pets need for good bone and overall health. Supplementation is the best way to see that need met for a balanced and healthy diet.

Copyright 2007 Sherry Massey

Sherry Massey is the owner of Barker and Friends Natural Pet Treats. Our mission is to provide healthy all natural treats and food to help your dogs and cats live longer, healthier lives. Please visit us at http://www.naturalbarker.com for a great selection of all natural treats we make from scratch, Flint River Ranch All Natural Pet Food, pet supplies and resources

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Frogs and Salamanders are Amphibians

Not many people know that the common garden frogs and toads come under special category called amphibians. They are called amphibians because they can live both on ground and inside water. They have a special set of lungs that assist respiration irrespective of the location of the animal. The term amphibian is so commonly used these days that any thing that relates to dual life inside water and on ground is referred to as amphibious. They are also called amphibians because there is involvement of water at one particular level in the life cycle of the animal. Let us examine these amphibians one by one.

The amphibians include the general garden frog, salamander, giant salamander, newt, Caecilians, South African Ghost frog, Dancing frog, Bull Frog, Dart Frog, Tree Frog and Gardenia Seychelles. All these animals lead a dual life. They spend more or less equal amount of their life cycle on water and land. For instance, it has been found that amphibians find it extremely difficult to survive in the absence of water. Even, the common garden frog is found in places where there is a lot of moisture. You can even find the garden frogs inside the water tank or fountain in the park or house garden. The frogs are fond of water for several reasons. Whenever they mate, the breeding takes place inside water. The frogs need water as the medium to lay their eggs. The initial phase of the newly born tad poles also known as younglings of frogs need water to sustain a living. These tadpoles contain a special set of gills using which they breathe while in water. Interestingly if the tadpoles are taken out of the water, they will not survive for long. Such is the bonding between the frog's life cycle and water.

After spending a larger part of their life inside water, the tadpoles transform into frogs. During this transformational period, these tad poles rely extensively on water for their food. They feed on a lot of microbial animals called planktons. It is said that a garden water tank is always clean in the presence of frogs. In the absence of water, frogs find it extremely difficult to breed. Some tree frogs, which live inside the jungles with little or no flowing water, have found an innovative way to breed. These frogs rely on the flower dew and tree sap for breeding. For instance, the frogs lay the eggs inside the dew collected flower in which the tadpoles become active once the egg hatches. The tad poles have very little space to move around. However, they continue to survive in such as small space. Unlike garden frogs, which lay eggs in thousands, the tree frogs lay only a few eggs. Since the absence of the ecosystem for breeding is poor when compared to that of the garden frog, the number of eggs laid is less.

Newts are some times tadpoles that fail to grow into the full size of a frog. Such conditions are very normal in the amphibian world. The limbless amphibians are also found in the fresh water.

Article written by Cassaundra Flores, owner of skyfireproducts.com

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